history

The History and Origins of Christmas

Elliot’s Note about this article

this article is not meant to be exhaustive; the history of Christmas is an enormous subject with lots of cultural history from the civilizations throughout recorded time.

Christmas is primarily a christian holiday to celebrate the birth of Jesus. However; it is speculated that the date of the 25th of December was chosen because it is exactly 9 months before the day of his conception, on March 25th which is the Spring Equinox. There is some evidence to suggest Jesus was actually born in December; however the sources aren’t very good[1]. Some believe that the celestial event of the star of Bethlehem, which could have been in June; or perhaps October[2]. The evidence isn’t clear, in my opinion. Generally Jesus is considered to have been born between 6-4 BCE because King Herod died in 4 BC.

When and Where was Jesus Born?

Jesus was most likely born in Bethlehem, a town in the West Bank in the Judean Hills of Jerusalem; currently this is contested by Israel and Palestine and not a good place to visit due to the Isaeli/Palestinian conflict (12/2023)[5]. The Church of the Nativity, built in the 4th century, is one of the oldest continuously used churches in the world founded by St. Justin Martyr, a 2nd-century Christian apologist.

I believe that it is likely that Jesus was born in Nazareth, his hometown, and that the journey to Bethlehem was added later to satisfy the Old Testament prediction which fulfilled the prophecy of the Messiah’s birth in Bethlehem (Micah 5:2), which is currently debated by scholars. I don’t think there is enough evidence to truly know this. This account only exists in the book of Matthew and is supported by the gospel of Luke. Bethlehem, meaning “house of bread” in Hebrew, was known for its fertile land, which ensured bountiful harvests.

It is likely that Jesus wasn’t born on December 25th. According to modern biblical scholars; there are two competing theories as to why this date was chosen for Christmas:

First, The “Calculation hypothesis” suggests that this date was calculated as nine months after March 25th, believed to be the day of Jesus’ conception.

Second, which I believe, the “History of Religions” hypothesis, proposes that the Church chose December 25th to coincide with Roman pagan festivals, particularly the birthday of the Unconquered Sun (Sol Invictus), a popular deity during the later Roman Empire.

There is no definitive evidence of the day of Jesus’ birth, although it is possible that it was December 25th.

A Strange Coincidence?

The festival of Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, the “birthday” of the unconquered sun, was celebrated on December 25th. This date later became significant in Christianity as it was chosen as the date to celebrate Christmas, the birth of Jesus Christ. The choice of this date for Christmas is often seen as a way to Christianize or replace the popular pagan festival. The worship of Sol Invictus may have influenced early Christian practices. The use of solar imagery in Christian iconography, as well as the adoption of December 25th for Christmas, are examples of possible intersections between the two traditions. After Constantine the Great embraced Christianity, the significance of Sol Invictus began to wane, although the cult continued for some time. Its legacy, however, can be seen in various aspects of Roman culture that persisted even after the adoption of Christianity as the empire’s state religion. The worship of Sol Invictus was established in Rome by Emperor Aurelian[6] in 274 AD, although the concept of a sun god was not new and had been a part of Roman religion in various forms. This particular cult combined aspects of earlier Roman sun gods like Sol with elements from other deities, especially from Eastern religions.

It is most likely that this holiday was created as a way to merge traditional paganism with the up-and-coming tenets and celebratory practices of Christians; but that’s just my opinion.

Christmas Trees, Decoration, and Lights

Evergreen Christmas Trees

have a fascinating history. Humans have worshipped, or appreciated trees for a very long time. The use of evergreen trees, wreaths, and garlands to symbolize eternal life was a custom of the ancient Egyptians, Chinese, and Hebrews. Tree worship was common among the pagan Europeans and survived their conversion to Christianity in the Scandinavian customs of decorating the house and barn with evergreens at the New Year to scare away the Devil and of setting up a tree for the birds during Christmastime.

In Germany placing a Yule tree at an entrance or inside the house during the midwinter holidays became popular in the 16th century, because of the garden of Eden mythos. It said believed that Protestant reformer Martin Luther was the first to add lighted candles to a tree, inspired by the starlit sky as he walked home one winter night. The Christmas tree symbolizes life and rebirth in the midst of winter. Early trees were adorned with fruits, nuts, and later, candles. The custom spread throughout Europe and was brought to America by German immigrants. It became enormously popular in the 19th century, especially in England after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were depicted in a published illustration with their decorated Christmas tree. Thanks Europe!

The Rise in popularity of Victorian Christmas Traditions

Henry Cole invented the Christmas Card in 1843

At the dawn of the 19th century, Christmas was hardly celebrated – at least, not in a way we would recognize today. It was Sir Henry Cole, the first director of the V&A, who introduced the idea of the Christmas card in 1843. Cole commissioned the artist J.C. Horsley to design a festive scene for his seasonal greeting cards and had 1000 printed (you can see the first cards here) – those he didn’t use himself were sold to the public. Later in the century, improvements to the chromolithographic printing process made buying and sending Christmas cards affordable for everyone.[10] Increased prosperity across Britain saw a rising market for mass-produced toys, decorations and novelty items such as the Christmas cracker. Inspired by bon bons (French sweets wrapped in paper) he saw during a trip to Paris, sweetshop owner Tom Smith first invented the cracker in the 1840s. It wasn’t until the 1860s, when Smith perfected its explosive ‘bang’ that the Christmas cracker as we know it today became a popular seasonal staple. Along with a joke, gifts inside could range from small trinkets such as whistles and miniature dolls to more substantial items like jewellery. The Victorian age placed great importance on family, so it follows that Christmas was celebrated at home. This creates a logical depiction of how and why we celebrate Christmas in the nuclear and extended family; the presents are stylistically very similar to what evolved during the Victorian era of Great Britain.

Lights at Christmas

The early 20th century saw Americans decorating their trees mainly with homemade ornaments, while many German Americans continued to use apples, nuts and marzipan cookies. Stringed popcorn was added to trees’ decoration after being dyed bright colors and interlaced with berries and nuts. Electricity brought about Christmas lights, making it possible for Christmas trees to glow for days on end. With this, Christmas trees began to appear in town squares across the country and having a Christmas tree in the home became an American tradition.[8]

The earliest lights were candles in the 17th century. This posed significant fire hazards and many tools were adopted to keep homes from burning down. Then, in 1882, Edward Johnson, Thomas Edison’s associate invented the first string of Christmas lights in red, white, and blue; three years after Edison invented the light bulb. Grover Cleveland displayed an electric lit Christmas tree in the White House in 1895, but adoption was still low due to the cost of lights. Once the cost of lights went down, they were widely adopted across the US and numerous technological advancements in lighting led to LED lights. Now, lights symbolize joy, celebration, and the bringing of light during the darkest time of the year. The story of Christmas lights is a testament to how technological advancements can transform cultural practices and create new traditions that last for generations.

Conclusion

From ancient Egypt to Bethlehem to modern America, from the birth of Jesus to celebrating the garden of Eden in Germany to making LED shows with high-tech lightning on giant evergreen trees; this is the history and evolution of the wonderful holiday we know as Christmas. Celebrate away humans! (if you have questions or additions, comment!)

References
  1. Wikipedia – Jesus’ Date of Birth
  2. LiveScience – When was Jesus Born?
  3. Britannica – Biography of Jesus
  4. Wikipedia – Chronology of Jesus
  5. Smart Traveller – Israel and Palestine Occupied Territories
  6. Wikipedia – Emperor Aurelian
  7. Britannica – Christmas Tree
  8. History.com – History of Christmas Trees
  9. National Geographic – History of Christmas Trees
  10. vam.ac.uk – Victorian Christmas Traditions
  11. Wikipedia – Sir Henry Cole
  12. The First Christmas Cards

The History and Origins of Christmas Read More »

Hawai’i’s Colorful History

Hawaii is a land of historically epic beauty. It is a timeless land.in Prehistory, the nature in Hawaii was completely untouched by humans and only lost birds and plants inhabited the island chain. Hawaii is a very young cluster of islands with a very short terrestrial history; the oldest islands were formed five to six million years ago and is unusual because it is a hotspot far away from the tectonic plate boundary (~2,000 miles away). Hawaii is the world’s youngest island chain!

The early history of the settlement of the Hawaiian Islands is relatively unknown, but by combining myth, logic, and the current scientific analyses we can get a good idea of how the island populations evolved and migrated and also how plant and animals species developed and assimilated alongside humans. Hawaii’s modern identity is a reflection of this unique, layered, and multifaceted history. Shaped by colonization and assimilation into the Western European cultures and the United States, Hawaii is a unique blend of native and invasive species, and layers of settlement of Polynesians, westerners, and labor forces from around the world.

Polynesian Mythology of Hawaii

The Polynesian’s have a rich mythology surrounding the formation and settlement of the islands of Hawaii, but it is important to note that these myths evolved over time and were heavily influenced by the arrival of Christianity in the 18th century. The history of the evolution of Hawaii is truly fascinating, matched only by their mythological evolution. Hawaiians have a pantheon of gods and goddesses, but the some of major deities are Kane, Kanaloa, Lono, Ku, Maui, and Pele. Hawaiian mythology also focused heavily on mana, or the interconnection between all beings and the natural world, similar to the concept of a ‘holy spirit’.

Kane Tiki Statue

The primary creation myth involves Kane Milohai is the god of creation. Kane is associated with the sun, fresh water, agriculture, forests, and procreation. His origin story is part of the best known creation myth, the Kumulipo chant, where the primordial first beings known as the Po’ele emerged from darkness to create other beings and gods; the world was created gradually, starting with the most basic of organisms and moved onto more complexity with insects, animals, birds, and eventually humans. In the myth, Kane and Kamala descended from the heavens to create and this led to the separation between the Earth and the sky or Papa and Wakea. It represents the division between the divine masculine and feminine and the creation of fertile ground where life could flourish. Kane is not only the creator god, but represents Hawaiian values, especially fertility.

Maui Depiction

Another creation myth involves Maui, known for his strength and supernatural abilities. One day, Maui set out on a fishing expedition with his brothers. They cast their lines into the ocean, but Maui’s line, baited with a sacred bird, got caught on something unimaginably massive beneath the water. As Maui and his brothers struggled to reel in their catch, it became apparent that they had hooked the land itself. With his incredible strength, Maui transformed into a giant and exerted all his power to pull up the land from the ocean depths. The land rose out of the water, and as Maui’s efforts continued, the individual Hawaiian Islands began to take shape. As the islands emerged, Maui used his knowledge of the natural world to shape and mold them, creating the mountains, valleys, and lush landscapes that make up the Hawaiian archipelago. He also shaped the rivers and waterways, ensuring that life could flourish on the newly formed islands.

Pele

A final example of the beautiful Hawaiian cultural myth is the story of Pele, who is said to have created the Hawaiian Islands. Halemaʻumaʻu in the Kilauea volcano on the island of Hawaii is where she is known to reside and is the goddess of volcanos and fire. Many Hawaiians believe that there is a family of gods that inhabit Kilauea and Pele is one of the sisters that controls the flow of lava. Legend told that Pele herself journeyed on her canoe from the island of Tahiti to Hawaiʻi. When on her journey to Hawaii from Tahiti, it was said she tried to create her fires on different islands, but her sister, Nāmaka, was chasing her, wanting to put an end to her. In the end, the two sisters fought each other and Pele was killed. With this happening, her body was destroyed but her spirit lives in Halemaʻumaʻu on Kilauea. They say, “Her body is the lava and steam that comes from the volcano. She can also change form, appearing as a white dog, old woman, or beautiful young woman.”

The gods each had specific roles in the creation and maintenance of the world. Lono was one of the original gods of the universe and was known as the god of music, peace, and agriculture and would bring rain during the 4 month rainy season which was also a season of peace for Hawaiians. Ku was a feather god that demanded human sacrifice and represented war, politics, and sorcery. Kanaloa is a squid or octopus goddess that complimented Kane and was considered the counter-opposite to the creator-sun god, representing shadow, underworld, magic, and the ocean.

Menehune,

In myth, the Polynesian’s were not the first islanders. The Menehune are a mythical race of dwarves, or little people, that were believed to be responsible for many of the various ancient structures on Hawaii. While the Menehune are generally considered benevolent beings, they are also known for their mischievous behavior. According to legends, the Menehune live in remote and hidden areas of the Hawaiian Islands, such as deep in the forests or in secluded valleys. These secretive locations are believed to be the reason why they are rarely seen by humans. They are said to play tricks on humans, sometimes helping them and at other times causing disruptions, sometimes shooting arrows to cause people to fall in love. The Menehune are renowned for their skill in construction and craftsmanship and are said to have built various structures, such as fishponds, temples, and houses, that were considered too advanced for the time. These feats of engineering have often been attributed to the Menehune’s supernatural abilities. There is ongoing debate among scholars about the origin and authenticity of the Menehune legends. Some believe that the Menehune are purely mythical, while others suggest they might be based on stories of indigenous peoples who inhabited the islands before the arrival of Polynesians.

600 year old petroglyphs on Maui

Unrecorded Histories of Hawaii

The first people known to have settle Hawaii were Polynesian, likely from the Marquesas Islands which were colonized by Polynesians around 800 AD. Islanders from Tahiti then arrived in Hawaii in a second wave, about 200 years later. The Kapu system was thus developed in a strict social hierarchy in Hawaiian society. At the top were the ali’i (nobility), followed by the kahuna (priests), maka’ainana (commoners), and kauwa (outcasts or slaves). Each group had specific rules and obligations, and there was little mobility between classes.

With them, polynesian settlers brought coconuts, bananas, taro, sweet potato, and breadfruit. They also brought and raised pigs, chicken, dogs, and the pacific rat.

Archaeologists believe that the settlers began arriving on the southern end of the big island of Hawaii and travelled northwards to colonize the rest of the islands. It is estimated that before European settlers arrived, there was close to a million inhabitants of the islands.

Hawaiian Villages

A typical Hawaiian city included many buildings:

  • Heiau, temple to the gods
  • Hale aliʻi, the house of the chief
  • Hale pahu, the house of the sacred hula instruments
  • Hale papaʻa, the house of royal storage
  • Hale ulana, the house of the weaver
  • Hale mua, the men’s eating house
  • Hale ʻaina, the women’s eating house
  • Hale waʻa, the house of the canoe
  • Hale lawaiʻa, the house of fishing
  • Hale noho, the living house
  • Imu, the communal earth oven

The Hawaiians believed that the earth belonged to the gods; one does not own land. However, the Ali’i were managers of the land; when chiefs would die, dwellings and lands would change hands between managers.

The Kapu System

“Ancient Hawaiʻi was a caste society developed from Polynesians.” A Tahitian priest named Pā‘ao is said to have brought a new order to the islands around 1200. The new order included new laws and a new social structure that separated the people into classes. The aliʻi nui was the king, with his ʻaha kuhina just below them; the makaʻāinana (commoners) next with the kauā below them as the lowest ranking social caste.

There were several classes in the Kapu caste system:

  • the Ali’i
  • Kahuna
  • Maka’ainana
  • Kauwa

The rigidity of the kapu system might have come from a second wave of migrations in 1000–1300 from which different religions and systems were shared between Hawaiʻi and the Society Islands. Hawaiʻi would have been influenced by the Tahitian chiefs, the kapu system would have become stricter, and the social structure would have changed. Human sacrifice would have become a part of their new religious observance, and the aliʻi would have gained more power over the counsel of experts on the islands.

Ali’i were the traditional nobility of the Hawaiian Islands that were organized in a feudal way. There were eleven classes of Ali’i including ruling chiefs, prominent kahunas, advisors, and priests. Aliʻi nui were supreme ruling chiefs of the main islands, but there were several other types of chiefs with specific taboos.

The Kahuna was a wise person, or shaman, but the term really means a subject matter expert. Forty types of kahuna are listed in the book Tales from the Night Rainbow, including Hula Kahunas (hula dances included storytelling), Kahuna La’au Lapa’au (doctors and healers), and Kahuna Kilo (prophets).

The Maka’ainana were simply commoners and were subject to the taboos and rules of the Ali’i.

The Kauwa was a broad and demeaning term to describe the class of slaves, outcasts, and servants to the Ali’i. (I’ve previously written a long and extensive article of the negative aspects of the Hindu caste system, which you might find interesting.)

Hawaii-History6
Cook depicted in a Nathaniel Dance-Hollandportrait, c. 1775

The Arrival of James Cook and Historical Records

Hawaii was isolated from the rest of the world for over 500 years until James Cook arrived from Britain in 1778. Cook arrived in Kaua’i in Waimea, Hawaii in 1778 and named the group of islands the sandwich islands, after the earl of sandwich (for whom sandwich were also named). Cook continued to travel around North America, then returned to the islands to restock his supplies.

in January 1779 Cook anchored in Kealakekua Bay after about 8 weeks of circling the islands; during Makahiki, the Hawaiian new year and harvest festival devoted to the god Lono. Coincidentally the form of Cook’s ship, HMS Resolution, or more particularly the mast formation, sails and rigging, resembled certain significant artifacts that formed part of the season of worship.[4][62]

Similarly, Cook’s clockwise route around the island of Hawaii before making landfall resembled the processions that took place in a clockwise direction around the island during the Lono festivals. It has been argued (most extensively by Marshall Sahlins) that such coincidences were the reasons for Cook’s (and to a limited extent, his crew’s) initial deification by some Hawaiians who treated Cook as an incarnation of Lono.[63]

After a month of exploiting his status as a deity, Cook left the Hawaiian islands only to have foremast broken. He returned to the islands to a tense atmosphere of questioning Hawaiians after a crew member of the HMS Resolution died; obviously the Hawaiians questioned how a deity could die. Cook also stole wood from a burial site. In the night of February 13th, an unknown group of Hawaiians stole one of the two longboats of the Resolution. The Hawaiians had become “insolent” so Cook’s obvious response was to kidnap and ransom the King of Hawaii, Kalaniʻōpuʻu.

On 14 February 1779, Cook marched through the village to retrieve the king. Cook took the king (aliʻi nui) by his own hand and led him away. One of Kalaniʻōpuʻu’s favourite wives, Kanekapolei, and two chiefs approached the group as they were heading to the boats. They pleaded with the king not to go. An old kahuna (priest), chanting rapidly while holding out a coconut, attempted to distract Cook and his men as a large crowd began to form at the shore. At this point, the king began to understand that Cook was his enemy.[66][failed verification] As Cook turned his back to help launch the boats, he was struck on the head by the villagers and then stabbed to death as he fell on his face in the surf.[67] He was first struck on the head with a club by a chief named Kalaimanokahoʻowaha or Kanaʻina (namesake of Charles Kana’ina) and then stabbed by one of the king’s attendants, Nuaa.[68][69] The Hawaiians carried his body away towards the back of the town, still visible to the ship through their spyglass. Four marines, Corporal James Thomas, Private Theophilus Hinks, Private Thomas Fatchett and Private John Allen, were also killed and two others were wounded in the confrontation.[68][70]

King Kamehameha I and the Birth of the Kingdom of Hawaii

Kamehameha was raised in the royal Hawaiian court and was given the prominent religious position as guardian of the Hawaiian god of war. He rose to higher prominence from several religious rituals and gained the support of 5 Kona chieftains and two uncles who bypassed the throne for their nephews, Kamehameha and Kīwalaʻō (who was to be the next great chief). Kīwalaʻō’s half brother received no land nor title and took out his rage on Kamehameha. The Battle of Mokuʻōhai ensued in 1782; the battleground was just to the south of Kealakekua Bay during which Kīwalaʻō was knocked down by a sling stone, and the injured Kameʻeiamoku was able to slit his throat with a shark-tooth dagger. Kamahameha recovered Kīwalaʻō feather cloak giving Kamehameha religious, political, and divine authority in the eyes of Hawaiians. This is known as a key turning point in Hawaii’s history and marks the beginning of the unification of the islands.

In 1790 Kamehameha’s army invaded Maui with the assistance of John Young and Isaac Davis. Using cannons from the Fair American, they defeated Maui’s army led by Kalanikūpule at the bloody Battle of Kepaniwai while the aliʻi Kahekili II was on Oahu.

Keōua Kūʻahuʻula, who came to rule the districts of Kaʻū and Puna, took advantage of Kamehameha’s absence in Maui and began raiding the west coast of Hawaii. He also advanced against the district of Hilo, deposing his uncle Keawemaʻuhili.[28][26] When Kamehameha returned, Keōua escaped to the Kīlauea volcano, which erupted. Many warriors died from the poisonous gas emitted from the volcano.

When the Puʻukoholā Heiau was completed in 1791, Kamehameha invited Keōua to meet with him. Keōua may have been dispirited by his recent losses. He may have mutilated himself before landing so as to render himself an inappropriate sacrificial victim. As he stepped on shore, one of Kamehameha’s chiefs threw a spear at him. By some accounts, he dodged it but was then cut down by musket fire. Caught by surprise, Keōua’s bodyguards were killed. With Keōua dead, and his supporters captured or slain, Kamehameha became King of Hawaiʻi island.[29]

In 1791, Kahekili and his brother Kāʻeokūlani reconquered Maui and also acquired cannons. In April or May 1791, Kahekili tried to invade the island of Hawaiʻi, but was defeated in a naval battle called Kepuwahaʻulaʻula near Waipiʻo. Kamehameha had to wait for the civil war that broke out in 1793 after the death of Kahekili to finally win control of Maui.[27]

In summer 1795, Kamehameha set sail with an armada of 960 war canoes and 10,000 soldiers. He quickly secured the lightly defended islands of Maui and Molokaʻi at the Battle of Kawela and later Oahu.

The Battle of Nuʻuanu was a fierce and brutal conflict, with warriors on both sides using traditional Hawaiian weapons like spears and clubs, along with firearms and cannons acquired from European contacts. The turning point of the battle occurred when Kamehameha’s forces managed to drive the Oahu warriors to the edge of the cliff. With nowhere to escape, many of the Oahu warriors either jumped off the cliffs to their deaths or were pushed off by Kamehameha’s warriors.

In the spring of 1796, he attempted to continue with his forces to Kauaʻi but he lost many of his canoes in the strong winds and rough seas of the Kaʻieʻie Waho channel. He returned to Hawaii to pacify the rebellion of Nāmakehā (brother of Kaʻiana) in Hilo and ruled from Hawaii for the next six years as he consolidated his conquests and prepare for a second invasion of Kauaʻi.[32] At Hilo, Kamehameha I commissioned the building a large fleet of 800 (according to Kamakau) double-hulled war canoes called peleleu along with Western schooners, and he also stockpile large number of guns, canons and ammunition. He took his peleleu to Maui where he stayed from 1802 to 1803 and then to Oʻahu in late 1803 or early 1804. While in Oʻahu, a large percentage of his force was killed by the maʻi ʻokuʻu epidemic, which was thought to be either cholera or bubonic plague. Kamehameha I contracted the illness but survived. The second invasion of Kauaʻi was postponed.

In April 1810, Kamehameha I negotiated the peaceful unification of the islands with Kauaʻi. He also created a unified legal system and collected taxes to promote trade with Europe and the United States.

After about 1812, Kamehameha returned from Oahu and spent the last years of his life at Kamakahonu, a compound he built in Kailua-Kona.[38][39]

When Kamehameha died on May 8 or 14, 1819,[41][42][43] his body was hidden by his trusted friends, Hoapili and Hoʻolulu, in the ancient custom called hūnākele (literally, “to hide in secret”). The mana, or power of a person, was considered to be sacred. As per the ancient custom, his body was buried in a hidden location because of his mana. His final resting place remains unknown. And yes, Goku’s signature energy attack is named after the Hawaiian king because the creator, Akira Toriyama’s wife suggested it.

Kamehameha I was succeeded by his son, Kamehameha II (Liholiho). Liholiho’s reign was relatively short, marked by his involvement in the abolition of traditional Hawaiian religious practices in favor of Christianity, a decision influenced by the influence of Christian missionaries.

After Kamehameha II’s death in 1824, his younger brother, Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli), ascended the throne. Kamehameha III’s reign was characterized by the formalization of Hawaii’s legal system, the issuance of the Hawaiian Constitution of 1840, and continued efforts to modernize the kingdom’s government and economy.

Kamehameha IV (Alexander Liholiho) succeeded Kamehameha III in 1855. His reign saw further attempts at modernization and political reforms. He also established the Queen’s Medical Center, a prominent medical institution in Hawaii.

Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa) took the throne in 1863 and is known for his strong and somewhat autocratic rule. He attempted to strengthen the monarchy’s power, although some of his proposed constitutional reforms were not enacted during his lifetime.

After Kamehameha V’s death, King Lunalilo was elected as king by the Hawaiian legislature in 1873. His reign was brief, as he died in 1874 without naming an heir. David Kalākaua, who was elected by the Hawaiian legislature, succeeded Lunalilo. Kalākaua’s reign was marked by the signing of the Reciprocity Treaty with the United States in 1875, which allowed Hawaiian sugar to be exported to the U.S. duty-free. Kalākaua’s sister, Liliʻuokalani, succeeded him in 1891 as the last reigning monarch of Hawaii. Her reign was marked by political tensions and efforts to regain some of the monarchy’s authority that had been eroded over time.

Overthrow of the Hawaiian Monarchy

The monarchy’s power had been steadily diminishing due to foreign influence, economic interests, and internal political struggles. In 1893, Liliʻuokalani’s attempt to promulgate a new constitution and regain power led to the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy by a group of American and European businessmen and diplomats, with the support of U.S. troops.

Foreign influence dominated the islands because of interests in the islands fertility and ability to produce agriculture. Sugar cane had been introduced to the islands by the Polynesians; European and American merchants established sugar plantations taking advantage of the native Hawaiian workforce and the fertility of the islands. The Kamehameha dynasty was also intrinsic in developing the sugar plantations to promote trade development.

The combination of the growth of christianity and the sugar cane industry led foreign interests to dominate the Hawaiian economy.

On January 20, 1887, the United States began leasing Pearl Harbor. Shortly after, the Hawaiian Patriotic League began the revolution of 1887; they drafted a constitution that greatly lessened the powers of the Hawaiian monarchy and forced the chief, Kalākaua to sign it. In July 1889, there was a small scale rebellion, and Minister Merrill landed Marines to protect Americans; the State Department explicitly approved his action. Kalākaua died in San Francisco on January 20th, 1891.

Liliʻuokalani assumed the throne in the middle of an economic crisis. Her proposed 1893 Constitution would have extended suffrage by reducing some property requirements. It would have disenfranchised many non-citizen Europeans and Americans. The Queen toured several islands on horseback, talking to the people about her ideas and receiving overwhelming support, including a lengthy petition in support of a new constitution. However, when the Queen informed her cabinet of her plans, they withheld their support, uncomfortable with what they expected her opponent’s likely response to be.[153]

Liliʻuokalani’s attempt to promulgate a new constitution on January 14, 1893, was the precipitating event leading to the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii three days later.[154] The conspirators’ stated goals were to depose the queen, overthrow the monarchy, and seek Hawaii’s annexation to the U.S.[155][156] The conspirators were five American, one English and one German national.[157]

The overthrow began on January 17, 1893. While the queen was on house arrest, a military coup took over the capital and intimidate royalist defenders, even though a shot wasn’t fired. This was the effective end of the monarchy.

Between 1893 and 1898 annexation became an increasingly popular idea.

In March 1897, William McKinley, a Republican expansionist, succeeded Democrat Grover Cleveland as U.S. president. He prepared a treaty of annexation but it lacked the needed 2/3 majority in the Senate given Democratic opposition.

McKinley signed the Newlands Resolution annexing Hawaii on July 7, 1898, creating the Territory of Hawaii. On 22 February 1900 the Hawaiian Organic Act established a territorial government. Annexation opponents held that this was illegal, claiming the Queen was the only legitimate ruler. McKinley appointed Sanford B. Dole as territorial governor. The territorial legislature convened for the first time on February 20, 1901. Hawaiians formed the Hawaiian Independent Party, under the leadership of Robert Wilcox, Hawaii’s first congressional delegate.

Sugarcane plantations by this time had grown so large and powerful that the owners dominated the industry of Hawaii and were known as “the big five”. During the Democratic Revolution of 1954, the unions inflicted a decisive blow against the giants, and when the sugar industry declined after Hawaii became a state in 1959, so did each of the Big Five companies. There was also intense competition from overseas, leading to the decline of the Hawaiian sugar industry. The last sugar plantation closed in 2016, ending the sugarcane industry in Hawaii.

The Evolution of Ecology in Hawaii

Born among volcanoes in the north central Pacific about 4 million years ago, the Hawaiian rainforest became assembled from spores of algae, fungi, lichens, bryophytes, ferns and from seeds of about 275 flowering plants that over the millennia evolved into ca. 1000 endemic species. There was a time before human existence on the islands, when only birds and flora lived on the island due to dispersal or migratory patterns over the ocean.

The isolation of the islands resulted in Adaptive Radiation, meaning that a single ancestor gave birds to multitudes of species adapted to the various microclimates and ecologies of the islands. This led to an incredible number of unique species on the islands, also known as endemism.

The Polynesians were the first to introduce various agricultural species and brought with them the first invasive and non-native species present on the islands today. The later European explorers compounded this issue with disease and the introduction of more non-native and invasive species. Only recently have conservation efforts been made to preserve native species and remove invasive ones.

Major Invasive species in Hawaii

Miconia
  • Miconia (Miconia calvescens): Miconia is a highly invasive plant species in Hawaii. It forms dense thickets that outcompete native vegetation and disrupt the natural ecosystem.
  • Coqui Frog (Eleutherodactylus coqui): The coqui frog is a small, nocturnal frog that is native to Puerto Rico but has become invasive in Hawaii. Its loud calls have caused noise pollution and ecological disruption.
  • Little Fire Ant (Wasmannia auropunctata): This invasive ant species has a painful sting and can negatively impact native insect populations. It is a significant nuisance for residents and threatens agriculture.
  • Kahili Ginger (Hedychium gardnerianum): Kahili ginger is an invasive plant that has spread throughout Hawaiian forests. It displaces native species and changes the structure of forest ecosystems.
  • Yellow Ginger (Hedychium flavescens): Yellow ginger, another invasive ginger species, is known for its rapid spread in Hawaii. It can outcompete native plants and alter the composition of natural habitats.
  • Australian Tree Fern (Sphaeropteris cooperi): This invasive fern species can form dense thickets and compete with native vegetation in Hawaii’s forests and understory.
  • Africanized Honeybee (Apis mellifera scutellata): This aggressive strain of honeybee is considered invasive in Hawaii and has had an impact on local bee populations.
  • Christmas Berry (Schinus terebinthifolius): Christmas berry is a small tree with invasive tendencies. It has invaded a variety of habitats in Hawaii, including forests and coastal areas.
  • Feral Pigs (Sus scrofa): Feral pigs are a significant invasive species in Hawaii. They damage native ecosystems by rooting in the soil, uprooting plants, and spreading invasive seeds.
  • Axis Deer (Axis axis): Axis deer were introduced to Hawaii for hunting purposes. They have become invasive and cause damage to agriculture and natural habitats.
  • Strawberry Guava (Psidium cattleianum): Strawberry guava is an invasive plant that forms dense thickets, outcompeting native vegetation.
  • Red-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer): This invasive bird species has established itself in Hawaii, affecting native bird populations and agricultural crops.
  • Invasive Algae (e.g., Gracilaria salicornia and Acanthophora spicifera): Various invasive algae species have proliferated in Hawaii’s coral reefs, impacting native marine life and altering reef ecosystems.

Major Native species Endemic to Hawaii

Hawaiian Goose

Hawaiian Monk Seal (Monachus schauinslandi): The Hawaiian monk seal is one of the world’s most endangered seal species. It is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and faces threats from human disturbance, entanglement in marine debris, and habitat loss.

Hawaiian Nēnē (Branta sandvicensis): The nēnē, or Hawaiian goose, is the world’s rarest goose and is endemic to Hawaii. It faces threats from habitat destruction, predation, and collisions with vehicles.

Alalā (Corvus hawaiiensis): The ʻalalā, or Hawaiian crow, is critically endangered and is extinct in the wild. Conservation efforts aim to reintroduce captive-bred birds into their native habitat on the Big Island.

Hawaiian Hoary Bat (Lasiurus cinereus semotus): This endemic bat species is threatened by habitat destruction and disturbances, particularly in its roosting sites.

Hawaiian Petrel (Pterodroma sandwichensis): The Hawaiian petrel is a seabird that faces threats from introduced predators and habitat degradation, particularly in its nesting areas.

Hawaiian tree snail

Hawaiian Tree Snails (Achatinella spp.): Many species of Hawaiian tree snails are critically endangered or extinct due to habitat loss, invasive predators, and disease.

Hawaiian Silversword (Argyroxiphium sandwicense): Silverswords are a group of plants endemic to Hawaii. Several species are endangered due to habitat destruction and damage caused by introduced herbivores.

Puaiohi (Myadestes palmeri): The puaiohi is a critically endangered thrush endemic to Kauai. It is threatened by habitat destruction and invasive species.

‘Ohi’a lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha): a species of flowering evergreen tree in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae, that is endemic to the six largest islands of Hawaiʻi. It is a member of the diverse Metrosideros genus, which are widespread over the southwest Pacific. It is the state tree of Hawai‘i.[4]

Manfern (Cibotium): a genus of 11 species of tropical tree ferns

False staghorn fern (Dicranopteris linearis): one of the most widely distributed ferns of the wet Old Worldtropics and adjacent regions, including Polynesia and the Pacific.[3]

References
  1. Earth@home.org – the Geologic History of Hawaii
  2. Wikipedia.org – History of Hawaii
  3. bg.copernicus.org – Origin of Hawaiian Rainforest
  4. TheSupernaturalFoxSisters.com – The Mysterious Menehune of Hawaii
  5. Punahou Buletin – Kamahameha I
  6. Chat GPT

Hawai’i’s Colorful History Read More »

Halloween : Origins and Traditions

Halloween marks the end of the harvest season and beginning of the darker half of the year, but its original nature is far more sacrificial and superstitious and also multicultural! Although many of the traditions that we now celebrate come from ancient Ireland, there are several cultures that have contributed to what is now celebrated as Halloween.

Celtic – Samhain Festivities

Halloween as we know it today mostly comes from a Celtic tradition and known as Samhain; a three day festival called ‘the feast of the dead’ where they would celebrate the harvest, build massive bonfires, dress up in costumes, feast, drink, and participate in divination and fortune telling.

Samhain, also known as the origin of Halloween, was a powerful and special demon of Hell and was one of the 66 Seals. He could only rise when summoned by two powerful witches through three blood sacrifices over three days, with the last sacrifice day on the final harvest, Halloween.

There are many rituals associated with Samhain today. These include dancing, feasting, taking walks, and building altars to honor ancestors. There are many parts to the altars Wiccans build. To symbolize the end of the harvest, they include apples, pumpkins, and several other fall crops. Neolithic passage tombs in Ireland are aligned with the sunrise at the time of Samhain, so this was a very important festival for the ancient inhabitants of Ireland.

Mexican – Dia De Los Muertos

This holiday actually arrives the couple of days after the traditional Samhain on November 1st and 2nd. The tradition is far more joyful and colorful than the Western Christian counterpart and focuses on humor and celebrations of the departed rather than mourning.

Traditions connected with the holiday include honoring the deceased using calaveras and aztec marigold flowers known as cempazúchitl, building home altars called ofrendas with the favorite foods and beverages of the departed, and visiting graves with these items as gifts for the deceased.

According to colonial period records, the Aztec empire was formed in A.D. 1427, only about a century before the arrival of Spanish . But the celebration that Mexicans now call Día de los Muertos almost certainly existed many centuries earlier, perhaps originating with the Toltec people of central Mexico. So the Toltec people may have been the first to celebrate this wonderful holiday. Mictecacihuatl is the “lady of the dead” and is said to watch over the bones of the dead and swallow the stars during the day.

Mictecacihuatl

The goddess of the underworld and the dead is often depicted with flayed skin and a gaping, skeletal jaw – was linked to both death and resurrection. According to one myth, Mictecacihuatl and her husband collected bones so that they might be returned to the land of the living and restored by the gods. 

The Aztecs appeased these fearsome underworld gods by burying their dead with food and precious objects. 

Archaeologists and historians know relatively little about the details of the month-long celebration of Mictecacihuatl, but say it likely involved burning incense, song and dance, and blood sacrifice – customary practices in many Aztec rituals.

Western Christian (Roman) – Halloween

Halloween, or All Hallows Eve, or All Saints Evening is a celebration of saints, martyrs, and the departed. One theory holds that many Halloween traditions were influenced by Celtic harvest festivals, particularly the Gaelic festival Samhain, which are believed to have pagan roots;[12][13][14][15] some go further and suggest that Samhain may have been Christianized as All Hallow’s Day, along with its eve, by the early Church.[16] Celebrated in Ireland and Scotland for centuries, Irish and Scottish migrants brought Halloween customs to North America in the 19th century, which is where most scholars believe the tradition evolved.

For some people, the Christian religious observances of All Hallows’ Eve, including attending church services and lighting candles on the graves of the dead, remain popular, though many Christians have historically abstained from meat on All Hallows’ Eve, a tradition reflected in the eating of certain vegetarian foods on this vigil day.

These three days are collectively called Allhallowtide and are a time for honoring the saints and praying for recently-departed souls who have yet to reach Heaven.

The Allhallowtide custom of baking and sharing soul cakes for all christened souls,[61] has been suggested as the origin of trick-or-treating.[62] The custom dates back at least as far as the 15th century[63] and was found in parts of England, Wales, Flanders, Bavaria and Austria.[64] Groups of poor people, often children, would go door-to-door during Allhallowtide, collecting soul cakes, in exchange for praying for the dead, especially the souls of the givers’ friends and relatives. This was called “souling”.

By 800, there is evidence that churches in Ireland[54] and Northumbria were holding a feast commemorating all saints on 1 November.

Conclusions of the Origins of Halloween

It is very likely that the traditions of Samhain and Halloween merged organically and was again reinforced when the Aztec and Central American tradition of Dia De Los Muertos was discovered and integrated into modern society. However, one cannot argue that these three days seem to be a very important time for humanity to mourn the passing of the deceased, in their own respective ways. It is fascinating that these cultures developed somewhat similar traditions. To learn more, check out my references!

Thanks for reading.

References:

  1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_of_the_Dead
  2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halloween
  3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samhain
  4. https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/paganism/holydays/samhain.shtml
  5. https://dayofthedead.holiday/history/
  6. https://theconversation.com/day-of-the-dead-from-aztec-goddess-worship-to-modern-mexican-celebration-124962
  7. https://www.halloweenexpress.com/samhain-and-the-connection-to-halloween/
  8. https://www.history.com/topics/holidays/samhain

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islam_hajj_saudi_arabia

Islam – The Fastest Growing Religion in the World

ISLAM:

The Religion of Muslims and Mohammed

Islam is a monotheistic religion that believes in the prophecy of Abraham through the Qur’an,which is considered to be the verbatim word of god (Allah), and Mohammed’s (600CE) example . Mohammed is considered to be the last prophet of god. Any adherent to the religion is called Muslim.

Practitioners believe god is all-powerful, incomparable, and that the purpose of their existence is to worship god. Muslim adherents believe their faith is a complete and universal truth passed down from Abraham, Noah, Adam Moses, and Jesus. They consider the Qur’an to be the final revelation of god and believe strongly in 5 pillars or concepts at the foundation of Islam.

Islam_Mosque

The Five Pillars:

  1. Faith – the creed of Islam recited under oath
  2. Prayer – also known as salat, these are rituals prayers during the day
  3. Zakat – alms giving and supporting the poor
  4. Fasting – performed usually during Ramadhan
  5. Pilgrimage to the mecca to follow in Abraham’s footstep ritualistically

There are two primary sects of the religion: Sunni(75-90%) and Shia(10-20%). 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia, 25% in South Asia, 20% in the Middle East, and 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa. Its followers comprise 23% of the world’s population.

Islam in the Modern World

Islam is one of the most submissive religions in the world. They recite oaths of submission to god’s will and believe the purpose of their existence is to worship god, which puts them in a state of complete surrender. This surrender leads to them feeling safe and at peace with their existence under god. They consider the Qur’an to be the true and unaltered word of god. They believe their holy books are the truth.68% and 80% of Shias lived in four countries: Iran, Pakistan, India and Iraq. Islam also has many laws that affect nearly every aspect of life for adherents. Islam has many very strict beliefs which has led to misinterpretation and misunderstanding over the past millennia, especially within the religion of Islam. One of these misunderstood concepts is the concept of Jihad.

Most Muslims are NOT Violent!

It is important to understand that even though people in America and the Western world think that Islam might be a violent religion, it is the exact opposite. 6.5% of the Muslims in the world felt that the attacks of 9/11 were justified and represents about 65 million Muslims; still a very large population, but a small percentage of the 1.65 billion muslims.

There are a few beliefs in Islam that when combined, create beliefs that create room for justify truly extremist acts such as 9/11, because of various verses in the Qur’an and different influential leaders promoting extremist action. There is absolutely an in-group that is created within the believers of Islam where the believers feel that they are special and correct in their beliefs, especially opposed to Christians, Jews, and other western religions.

The beliefs of Jihad, Predestination, and many of the literal interpretations of the Qur’an have led to an explosive anti-hero/terrorist movement in many of the sects that are highly devotional and in poorer countries with less education and rights. This has led to holy wars in the 1980s in Northern Africa and the Middle East and culminates in Osama Bin Laden’s declaration jihad against the United States and subsequent attacks on New York on September 11th. Bin Laden was a part of al-Quaeda whose goal was Islamic world domination, but this is an extremist group. The vast majority is Muslims are not members of al-Quaeda or ISIS and even the members of those groups are most likely deluded and heavily traumatized.

ISIS: An Evolution from Al-Quaeda

ISIS, or the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria is a salafi jihadist militant and extremist group that has proclaimed itself the caliph recently, on June 29th 2014, which means religious, military, and political power of muslims worldwide. Of course, the vast majority of muslims want nothing to do with this, but the insurgence has spread recently into northern Africa and has gained momentum. The group has significant momentum since it is formed from the remaining members of al-Qaeda, but at this point the two have separated completely in ideologies and ISIS has become a unique entity in and of itself. The Syrian Civil war was an excuse for extremists to militarize in conjunction with Iraqi militants and jihadists fleeing the presence of the United States military.

Now the two forces of al-Qaeda and ISIS are competing for militant recruitment in places like Yemen and Syria. There is also a presence in the Philippines, Libya, Pakistan, Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria, Afganistan, and of course in Iraq.

The goal of the group is to found the Sunni Islamic State under the caliph who is believed to be the successor to Muhammed. This Salafi group promotes religious violence and regards all others as infidels or apostates. This is a waves of religious fundamentalism that enforces rituals with capital punishment and execution. The religion is their foundation for growing power of the religious state.

This is one of the most interesting sects of the religion, but represents a minority; though they are proficient at using social media to display their horrific actions. They are regarded by the western world as extremist terrorists and rightfully so. Even the majority of their own religion deem them to be deluded extremists.

Positive Aspects of the Islamic State

The vast majority of the adherents of Islam do not fit the profile I described above. In fact, the majority of the Muslims that I have met have been extremely kind and well-wishing, welcoming and neighborly. I even met a very peaceful guy from Yemen while I was in India whose family was involved in the Civil War. It is very sad for everyone to see this kind of violence and trauma and there is not much logic that can explain why it occurs.

Ritual Prayers

Salah or Salat must be performed five times a day with no exemptions. Salat is intended to focus the mind upon god and is seen as a personal communication with him of gratitude and worship. Lines of the Qur’an are recited in Arabaic. Mosques are places that are available for prayer, or as places or study, or learning.

Discipline

Both fasting, alms giving to the poor, and pilgrimages are required in the religion, yielding trials of great difficulty for adherents.

Home Life

The religion is primarily focused on life at home, though many religious texts sanctify the beating of women. There is special etiquette and diet including no meat, carrion, alcohol, or blood. Marriage in Islam is a civil acceptance where the groom is required to pay for the bride as a part of their contract.

Criticisms of Islam

Criticism of Islam has existed since its inception, for obvious reasons as the religion is a reformation from Judaism and Christianity. Early criticism came from Christians as radical heresy and later appeared more significantly from Judaism.

The majority of the criticisms are the morality of the life of Mohammed, issues relating the authenticity of the Qur’an and other questions of human rights, especially in regards to women. The questions of the founder’s authenticity and the authenticity of holy works are the criticisms of every major religion including christianity, Judaism, and Buddhism.

Conclusion

Islam obviously has its own ups and downs as a religion, but its impact upon the civil rights of humans has to be mitigated if the religion will survive in the western world. However, much of the extremist propaganda is currently growing in northern Africa and the Middle East, of particulate note to the United States and Europe. This will be a religion whose ideals are dynamic and that changes drastically to fit the changing cultures of its proprietors.

 

I would love to hear about any experiences that you have had with the Islamic adherents that you have met or any other surprises you have gotten from adherents of the religion. Check back in a week to pagayogi.com for my next article on the ideals of Islam and how terrorism and heroism have intersected to form an ideology that is changing the world.

References:

  1. Wikipedia
  2. Islam Origins
  3. An Overview of Islam
  4. The Belief System of Islam
  5. Problems in Modern Islam
  6. The Biggest Problem in Islam
  7. Heavy Review of Islam
  8. 25 Deadly Terrorist Attacks
  9. FBI on Terrorism
  10. Islam and Violence

 

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Lao Tse | 李耳 – The Founder of the Philosophy of Taoism

Lao Tse, The First Taoist

Lao Tse, Laozi, Lao-Tzu, Lao-Tze, or Laozi was a philosopher and poet in ancient China who is best known for founding Taoism by writing the Tao Te Ching. He is a deity in certain traditions and probably lived around 4-500 BCE, but is often dated to the time of Confucius  at 600 BCE. Lao Tse is one of the great teachers and influencers of early eastern philosophy and helped to give foundation to the great traditions of the East. He famously said, “Be still like the mountain and flow like a great river.” (his work is riddled with allegory and word plays)

Lao Tse is a title meaning “venerable” “master. Many scholars argue that he was many people rather than one, but most ancient texts mention him in 600 BCE. The first copy of the Tao Te Ching is from 400 BCE. In any case, Lao Tse is said to have spent his life revealing the Tao. Much of his work after his death was used by anti-authoritarian establishments throughout history.

Er Li was a scholar and Alan Watts believes that he was the man that we know as the great master, but other scholars have argued that the figure of Lao Tse must have been many people. He was mentioned by several historical texts after his death.

According to tradition, Laozi studied in the royal court of Zhou and attracted large numbers of people, legends tell of an encounter with Confucius, but Lao Tse never opened a school.

One story says that Laozi is a hermit who lived in the woods until he was 160 years old. One day he was stopped by Yinxi at a gate and Yinxi asked Laozi to record his wisdom. He wrote the Tao Te Ching in response. Many stories then tell of Laozi traveling all the way to India to teach the Buddha. Some say that he was the Buddha.

The Tao Te Ching is one of the most powerful works in Chinese history. It describes the Tao as the source and ideal of all existence and all of nature flows from it, so when humans defy their nature, they separate themselves from the flow of the Tao.

Laozi said that technology brings about a false sense of progress and taught about a method of existence called Wu-Wei, or non-action. What it really means is flowing with the moment, not forcing, acting spontaneously, not doing anything, or creating nothingness.

Zhuangzi was Laozi’s disciple and was a central authority to monastic life amongst normal populations and drifting anonymously though society. Some modern politicians think that Laozi was the first libertarian, believing that people should be allowed to govern themselves loosely and without much governmental structure.

Lao Tse | 李耳 – The Founder of the Philosophy of Taoism Read More »

Panini

Panini is a very well-known Sanskrit grammarian that literally changed the way that language functioned until the 20th century and helped to pave the way for many aspects of modern language as we know it.

No one really knows when Panini was born or how he was raised, but most scholars place his birth around 400 – 600 BCE, some as far back as 1500 BCE. Panini marks the turn from the Vedic period to the Classical period because of his set of nearly 4,000 Sanskrit rules of morphology in his text called the Astadhyayi, one of the first texts on Sanskrit grammar and the first formal system of linguistics in the world.

Panini’s first formal system used many concepts that weren’t well understood until the computational linguistics of the 20th century starting to come around. He heavily influenced many modern scientists with his use of auxiliary symbols.

His work, the Astadhyayi was later analyzed by a Patanjali which is called the Mahabhasya and elaborates on Panini’s grammar. The man kept linguistic experts studying his rules for a thousand years and it took another thousand and a few hundred more years for his rules to be modernized and built on. His accomplishments are truly legendary.

The Astadhyayi marked the changed in period from Vedic to classical Sanskrit  and provided a linguistic foundation for the users of his language until it was used in modern technology. Panini is a man who you might never heard about, but he almost certainly influenced the way that you use language.

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Swami Vivekananda

Swami Vivekanada was born in 1863 into an aristocratic Bengali family and was heavily influenced by his guru Ramakrishna while he taught concepts and philosophies of Hinduism around the world. He was a charismatic and well-known man who traveled the world speaking on Hinduism and bringing its form of spirituality to the west. He was spiritual from childhood and continued to become one of the most influential Hindu speakers in India, but throughout his life he focused his mind on god. Throughout the beginning of the 19th century he toured India teaching Hinduism and intercultural awareness to his fellow Indians and later he would teach the concepts of Hinduism to the western world until he died in 1903 at 39.

Vivekananda was born Narendranath in Calcutta. His mother’s religious attitude and father’s rational attitude helped to form his thinking until he began his tutelage under after a lecture from William Hastie. Ramakrishna a mystic and yogi who pledged himself to Ma Kali, but experienced samadhi and followed a path towards the Hindu concept of Moksha in service to others, the philosophy which  Vivekanada also followed. However, Vivekanada did oppose Ramakrishna’s idol worship, polytheism, and obsession with Kali. After renouncing everything following his father’s death and the bankruptcy of his family his took up Ramakrishna as his guru in the pursuit of realizing god.

Ramakrishna died in 1886 and after his death Vivekanada founded a new monastery in the memory of his old guru. The disciples would spend hours in meditation and practicing rituals each day and eventually Vivekanada and eight other disciples swore religious vows to live as Ramakrishna had and Narendra changed his name to Swami Vivekanada. He continued to travel teaching as he went.

There is no doubt that Swami Vivekanada was an excellent public speaker. He is probably best known for this speech to the Parliament of World Religions where he called Americans brothers and sisters to a tremendous uproar of approval. He traveled through the western and eastern world and eventually claimed to be a new buddha to the west. He traveled around the world for fourteen years speaking on Hinduism, meditation, and founding monasteries and ashrams.

Swami Vivekanada’s health began to decline in 1899 when he developed insomnia, diabetes, and asthma. He died in 1902 after meditating for several hours that day and died while meditating, after the rupturing of a blood vessel in his brain. After his death, Vivekanada is recognized for revitalizing Hinduism inside and outside of India, in particular his doctrine that each living being is divine. He also stated that all paths within Hinduism lead to the same goal, but some view this as oversimplified.

Vivekanada was an excellent writer and produced songs, poems, lectures, and other forms of art. His influence allowed the printing of over 19 books, some published posthumously. He wrote on everything in Indian culture from defying the caste system to treating all other people as brothers. He was a powerful figure in modern Hinduism and Indian nationalism and helped to pave the way for yoga to later become a powerful influence in the West.

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Patanjali

Patanjali was the author of the Yoga Sutras, one of the most influential yoga texts in the modern world. He is also believed to have a snake-human form during his teaching. He with his human form used to perform daily routines and then transformed to half human – half snake shape covered by a curtain so that the students weren’t able to see him while he would explore the mystical techniques of ancient wisdom.

Probably a group of people…

Despite what modernized and idealistic yoga blogs and sites will tell you, it was most likely a group of people who lived about 1600 years ago, but could be as old as 2500 years. I say that it was likely a group of people because of the amount of knowledge contained in the sutras and the way that people functioned in groups thousands of years ago. We like to attribute knowledge to one author, rather than recognizing the multitudes of authors, time periods, and influences that a piece of work contains. This is particularly true of the Christian bible.

Panini was likely involved in this group of people; he is considered a father of modern language and contributed significantly to Sanskrit and compound noun theory, as well as syntax and phonology.

Patanjali is the not father of modern yoga. That title can be given to Krishnamacharya. Patanjali was more of a founder; the group of people took works from their respective time period and before, then compiled them into digestible teachings that students and teachers could reference on their yoga journeys. He created a framework that Krishnamacharya would later use to create the modern poses, sequences, and specific techniques. Where Patanjali’s yoga begins is in the traditions that Krishnamacharya learned from his father and his father before him. Until yoga became modernized and everyone could start a daily practice of yoga.

As humans we love to idealize about the past and one figure completing this vast amount of infrastructural work for practitioners of yoga, but Patanjali is not a figure that we need to deify or put on a pedestal. There were likely multiple people with the name and likely multiple people who authored the yoga sutras. However, Patanjali’s work on the sutras is enough to keep us busy thinking about our own humanity instead of focusing on the origins of the text, because Patanjali did not seem to claim any credit for the contemporary authors of the yoga sutras.

The 196 sutras, or short teachings from the yoga sutras are fantastic in their comprehensive philosophical scope. They are also written in Sanskrit, which is a great administrative language and is very specifically used in philosophy. They were, however, lost to time in the 12th century until the 19th century when they were revived by modern Indian scholars. During the 19th and 20th century the texts rose in popularity and prominence over the Bhagavad Gita, Yoga Vasistha, and other literature on Hatha yoga.

There are four parts to the yoga sutras:

  1. Samadhi Pada – describes oneness with the divine and Samadhi
  2. Sadhana Pada – describes practices and Ashtanga
  3. Vibhuti Pada – describes “supernatural” effects of yoga
  4. Kaivayla Pada – describes moksha, liberation, or enlightenment

Each of the four chapters is an invigorating review of conscious experience and systematic functionality of the human mind. The second chapter is probably the most concrete in terms of advice for actually practicing yoga, rather than philosophy and it is where the eight limbs of yoga or Ashtanga is explained.

Ashtanga is not only a system of acrobatic yoga propagated by Pattabhi Jois, but a philosophical system for achieving Samadhi and Moksha, also known as enlightenment. The eight limbs of yoga are described as scaffolding, or a framework for ascending into the heights of the yoga of knowledge, or Raja yoga, which BKS Iyengar described to be infinite. The eight limbs are as follows

  1. Yamas – ethics and restraints
  2. Niyamas – virtues
  3. Asanas – physical postures
  4. Pranayamas – breathing exercises
  5. Pratyahara – sense withdrawal
  6. Dharana – single pointed meditative focus
  7. Dhyana – meditative awareness of oneness
  8. Samadhi – unison and oneness with the divine in bliss

These are the scaffolding that Patanjali assembled to assist individuals in realizing their self. Many of these concepts cross-over into Buddhist ideals of meditation, as you may have already noticed. Once the self is realized, liberation and freedom from the cycles of death and rebirth is afforded to the practitioner.This modernization of Hinduism was very well received in the western world.

In reviewing the history of something as old and popular as yoga it is important to understand that we have only theories and hypotheses about what was happening 1500-2500 years ago. No one really knows the group who made up the author named Patanjali, how old they are, how they compiled their information, or what exact sources they used. Instead we can guess, which is more fun anyways.

References:

  1. Wikipedia – Panini[1]
  2. Wikipedia – Morphology in Ancient India[2]

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"Tirumalai Krishnamacharya" by Source. Licensed under Fair use via Wikipedia - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tirumalai_Krishnamacharya.png#/media/File:Tirumalai_Krishnamacharya.png

Krishnamacharya

Krishnamacharya is one of the more interesting figures in the paradigm of modern yoga’s founders. He probably had the greatest effect on the types of yoga that we practice today in the west and he healed many people during the course of his life. He used Ayurveda in conjunction with yoga to restore health and well-being to the individuals he treated and he wrote four books on yoga. He might have invented vinyasa flow as we know it today.

Tirumalai Krishnamacharya lived for 100 years; was born in 1888 and died in 1989. During his lifetime he taught many of the world’s most renowned yoga teachers: BKS Iyengar, Pattabhi Jois, TKV Desikachar (his son), and A.G Mohan (worked alongside Desikachar).

Krishnamacharya had a traditional childhood; when he was six he underwent upanayaya when he learnt to write and read Sanskrit, chant the Vedas, and learnt asana and pranayama from his father. When he was 10, Krishnamacharya’s father died and his family moved to his grandfather’s house in Mysore. In Mysore Krishnamacharya attended more advanced schooling and began traveling around India when he was in Mysore.

When he was 18 he moved to Benares to study logic and sanskrit, but would visit Mysore again at 21 to study at the university of Mysore. He would continue to study and practice his yoga in Mysore and Benares until he walked 2 and a half months to the base of Mount Kailash in Tibet, where Brahmachari lived with his family. Krishnamacharya spent 7 & 1/2 years studying under his guru and took payment of teaching yoga, having a family, and maintaining a household.

Krishnamacharya returned to the world and traveled to Varnasi, where he did menial labor for a time until his knowledge was recognized and he was introduced to various nobility for his healing and yogic knowledge and skills. The Maharaja of Mysore took particular interest in Krishnamacharya and installed the yoga teacher in his palace in Mysore. Krishnamacharya would move on to perform lectures all over India, stimulating interest in yoga and eventually was able to start a yoga shala in Mysore.

While in Mysore, Krishnamacharya authored several books and taught yoga consistently, a guru to many of the world’s future gurus. Many scholars also place emphasis on some of  Krishnamacharya’s sources, saying that he used books referencing western gymnastics in many of his exercises. In 1946 India gained its independence, but this was bad news for Krishnamacharya; he was forced to travel to find students and to support his family. His yoga school eventually closed in 1960.

The remainder of Krishnamacharya’s life was spent in scholarship; he viewed himself as an eternal student. When he was 96 he fractured his hip, but refused surgery to treat himself while in bed. He lived and taught in Chennai until he died in 1989, at the ripe age of 100. Even though Krishnamacharya’s teachings radically changed the world he never left his homeland of India. He is one of the most influential figures in yoga; it is possible that he even invented modern yoga as it is known today; he was a learned scholar with degrees in philosophy, logic, divinity, philology, and music; and you might have heard of him. He is certainly one of the most influential individuals of the modern age.

References:

  1. Shreehariyoga – Krishnamacharya
  2. Wikipedia – Krishnamacharya

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